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ALE's parser makes use of the EFD-closure parsing algorithm
introduced in Penn and Munteanu (2003). Unlike the textbook chart
parsing algorithm and Carpenter's algorithm employed in earlier
versions of ALE (Carpenter and Penn, 1996), this algorithm reduces
the number of copying operations for edges to a constant number of two
per non-empty edge. Penn and Munteanu (2003) show that this algorithm
performs better than standard bottom-up Prolog parsers on a variety of
grammar shapes.